This analysis revealed a significant increase in activity on trials where BE occurred as early as 2–4 sec following the first scene onset (collapsed across hemisphere: HC t = 2.11, p = .02; PHC t = 1.94, p = .03), indicating that this is an early response that likely occurred soon after stimulus onset ( Fig. 5A and B). Given that the shortest delay between the onset of the first and second scene presentations was 3.45 sec (occurring on one third of the trials due to the jittered delay), we can conclude with some certainty that this effect during the 2–4 sec time-window can only be attributed to a process occurring in response to the first scene.

Furthermore, given that the BOLD signal lags behind cognitive processes with a peak response at around 6 sec after stimulus presentation, this early response at 2–4 sec suggests a rapid response to the first stimulus. Due to the limited temporal resolution of fMRI, Hydroxychloroquine cost Y-27632 cell line it is not possible to determine whether the signal can be attributed to a process occurring online, during perception of the scene, or shortly after the stimulus offset. Nevertheless, we can conclude that the BE-related activity occurred in response to the first scene, prior to the onset of the second scene, which was the critical question of interest here. These results clearly implicate both the HC and PHC in BE. Our hypothesis

was that the HC plays a central role in the BE effect, because patients with damage localised to the HC show reductions in BE (Mullally et al., 2012). It was therefore important to tease apart the functional contributions of these two regions by investigating the neural dynamics occurring during the BE effect. If our hypothesis was correct, then we would expect the HC to be driving the activity of the PHC. The flow of information between these two regions was assessed using DCM (see Section 2.8), a Bayesian model comparison method in which different models of the neural dynamics are compared in order to find the most likely model of information flow in

the brain (Friston et al., 2003). For this analysis, we used a simple approach which involved investigating Urease the connectivity between the two ROIs, the HC and PHC. We conducted this analysis separately in both hemispheres, and used a random effects Bayesian model comparison method to determine which was the winning model (Stephan et al., 2009, 2010). The winning model was the backward modulation model, in which the HC drove activity within the PHC, and this was the case for both hemispheres independently (exceedance probability for the backward model was 60% in the right, and 51% in the left hemisphere; Fig. 5C). This result suggests that the HC is the driving force behind the BE effect, which then influences activity within the PHC.

Referenciada à consulta de

Gastrenterologia, em janeiro de 2009, por um quadro clínico de odinofagia e dor retroesternal com 2 semanas de evolução, associado a emagrecimento (> 10% peso corporal) em 2 meses. Ao exame objetivo destacava-se IMC < 18,5. O estudo analítico com hemograma, coagulação e bioquímica geral não mostrou alterações de relevo. Foi submetida a endoscopia digestiva alta que revelou aos 28 cm da arcada dentária, uma lesão ulcerada com cerca de 4 cm de diâmetro, com bordos irregulares e fundo cinzento, sugestiva de neoplasia esofágica (fig. 1). Fizeram-se múltiplas biopsias, no entanto, o exame histológico sugeriu um granuloma mal formado com células gigantes do tipo de Langhans, sem presença de células neoplásicas (fig. 2). Da investigação complementar posterior destaca-se radiografia de tórax sem alterações, pesquisa RO4929097 de anticorpos anti- vírus de imunodeficiência humana 1 e 2 negativos, teste de Mantoux inconclusivo, estudo radiológico do esófago com pequena área focal de retificação e rigidez parietal, no segmento médio na vertente postero-lateral esquerda (fig. 3) e TC toraco-abdominal com espessamento parietal do esofágo a nível do terço médio (fig. 4). Realizou-se segunda endoscopia digestiva

com o objetivo de obter mais material para exame histológico e micobacteriológico. O exame histológico excluiu novamente neoplasia. Tendo em conta a forte suspeita de tuberculose esofágica, realizou-se o teste de IGRA (interferon gamma release assay – QuantiFERON®-TB Gold) que foi positivo. Navitoclax in vitro Com base nos resultados endoscópicos, radiológicos, histológicos e o teste de IGRA positivo, a doente iniciou terapêutica com isoniazida, rifampicina, pirazinamida e etambutol. Duas semanas após o início do tratamento,

identificou-se Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) no exame cultural da biopsia esofágica. A doente ficou assintomática ao fim de 4 semanas de tratamento. Repetiu-se endoscopia digestiva que revelou pequena lesão ulcerada em fase de cicatrização ( fig. 5). À data, a doente completou 1 ano de tratamento e mantém-se assintomática. Dimethyl sulfoxide A tuberculose esofágica é responsável por 1 a 3% da tuberculose gastrintestinal, sendo o órgão menos atingido de todo o aparelho digestivo. A tuberculose primária do esófago, como o nosso caso clínico, é ainda mais rara. Este facto deve-se sobretudo aos mecanismos de defesa do esófago, nomeadamente a sua estrutura tubular, o epitélio estratificado escamoso, a camada protetora de saliva e a rápida progressão das substâncias ingeridas, o que impede o crescimento de agentes patogénicos neste orgão3. É mais frequente nos doentes imunodeprimidos, atingindo raramente os indivíduos imunocompetentes. Os sintomas mais frequentes são odinofagia, dor retroesternal e emagrecimento4. Pode também manifestar-se, embora de forma menos frequente, como disfagia e hematemeses. Tendo em conta a clínica mais prevalente, o diagnóstico diferencial faz-se com neoplasia esofágica.

1). As judged by the SDS-PAGE data of Fig. 3C, lane 4, transferrin is the only contaminant of our CPA2 preparation obtained from rat MAB perfusate; no attempts were made to rid the CPA2 preparation of this proteolytically inactive substance for the sake of recovery of CPA

activity during the purification process. The finding of a functional CPA2 in the rat MAB perfusate, an enzyme which structurally resembles that isolated from pancreas [10], led us to investigate the presence of the respective RNA message www.selleckchem.com/products/PF-2341066.html in the rat mesentery as an evidence of the local synthesis of the enzyme. The complete sequence of the cloned cDNA for the rat mesenteric preproCPA2 was obtained as described in Section 2.6.2, which turned out to be identical with that

of rat pancreas [10] except for the base changes G177T, C439A and C1148G. The latter two changes introduced the mutations selleck chemical L147I and A383G (preproCPA2 numbering), indicating the polymorphic nature of this enzyme. Whereas the rat MAB perfusate CPA1 was isolated as an Ang-(1-7)-forming enzyme using Ang II as the substrate for monitoring the activity during the chromatographic purification of the enzyme (Fig. 1A), the isolation of the CPA2 was attained by measuring its activity toward Z-Val-Phe, a general purpose substrate for CPAs (Fig. 3A and B). In spite of this, CPA2 was later shown capable of hydrolyzing some Ang peptides with substrate specificity suggestive that differences between rat MAB CPA1 and CPA2 go beyond those observed during their isolations. These enzymes

differentially process peptide components of the RAS such as Ang I, Ang II, Ang-(1-9) and Ang-(1-12), as shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6. For the sake of comparison between enzyme preference for different substrates, hydrolysis of each of these peptides was determined using a fixed Tau-protein kinase amount of either enzyme (0.41 mU CPA1 and 1.02 mU CPA2, based on Z-Val-Phe hydrolysis), chosen so as to limit the cleavage of the substrate that was most rapidly degraded by the respective enzyme to about 80% of its initial concentration. Rat CPA1 is remarkable in which, under the assay conditions described in Fig. 5A, it is capable of generating Ang-(1-7) by a stepwise mechanism involving the sequential removal of the C-terminal residue of the intermediate products Ang-(1-9) and Ang II. This mechanism is rather corroborated by the results of the direct action of rat CPA1 on the substrates Ang II and Ang-(1-9), shown in Fig. 5B and C, respectively. Moreover, the accumulation of the intermediate Ang-(1-9) during the conversion of Ang I to Ang-(1-7) suggests that the cleavage of the C-terminal His residue of Ang-(1-9) may be the limiting step in the process. On the other hand, rat CPA2 generates only Ang-(1-9) upon incubation with Ang I (Fig. 6A) and, under the reaction conditions described in Fig. 6B and C, has a negligible, if any, action on Ang II and Ang-(1-9), respectively.

No change was noted in the patients’ peak oxygen consumption value. Unfortunately, the beneficial findings

on patients’ 6-minute walk distance could not be pathophysiologically explained, as there were no changes noted in body weight, total lean mass, serum IL-6, tumor necrosis factor, or hand grip strength. More promising results were obtained in a clinical trial in 226 patients with stage 3 or 4 non–small cell lung cancer who received anamorelin in an international, randomized, double-blind, 12-week phase II study.62 Patients were randomized to placebo (n = 76) or oral anamorelin 50 mg (n = 76) or 100 mg (n = 73) per day. A beneficial effect on body weight was observed as early as 1 week after anamorelin treatment initiation. Over 12 weeks, the group that received 100 mg anamorelin gained on average 0.14 kg compared with baseline, whereas mean find more losses of 0.3 kg and 1.32 kg occurred in the 50-mg and placebo group (P = .0005). No

effect was noted on hand-grip strength or survival. The larger ROMANA 2 phase III trial that included 495 patients with non–small cell lung cancer was recently finished, but results have not been reported so far. 63 Garcia et al 64 performed a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial that evaluated the effects of anamorelin in 16 cachectic patients with different cancers. Patients were randomly assigned to receive oral anamorelin at a dosage of 50 mg per day or Morin Hydrate placebo for 3 days. Compared with placebo, http://www.selleckchem.com/products/OSI-906.html treatment with anamorelin induced significant increases in body weight (placebo: –0.33 kg vs anamorelin: + 0.77 kg, P = .02), appetite (P < .02), and serum levels of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1. Anabolic steroids have been effectively used to treat muscle wasting65 and 66; for example, in chronic heart failure where almost 20% of patients are affected by this problem.67

In patients with heart failure, low levels of circulating anabolic hormones are associated with poor outcomes.68 and 69 The problem with the administration of anabolic steroids is that their risks often outweigh their potential benefits. Selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs) belong to a relatively new class of therapeutics currently under development that possesses anabolic properties without adverse effects on prostate, skin, or hair, frequently associated with testosterone treatment.70 and 71 Enobosarm, an orally bioavailable nonsteroidal SARM with tissue-specific anabolic and androgenic activity, has shown improvements in lean mass and physical function in healthy younger as well as in healthy elderly men and postmenopausal women.72 The latter study was published in 2011, highlighting a large unmet clinical need.1 Recently, collagen VI fragment has been suggested as a marker of anabolic response that could be useful in patients treated with SARMs.

ACME Laboratories is ISO 9001 certified. Four method blanks were analyzed during this study and several elements were detected at concentrations just above detection limits in one of the four method blanks. They included Ba (0.07 ppb), Be (0.06 ppb), Ru (0.07 ppb), S (1 ppm), and Sr (0.05 ppb). Four pairs of duplicate samples were analyzed and the average relative percentage difference OSI-744 (RPD)

for Al, Ca, and K was <1%. For Ba, Cl, Na, Nd, Rb, Si, and Sr the RPD varied between 1–5%. For Cr, Ce, La, Li, and Zn the RPD varied between 5 and 10%. Elements with higher average RPD include B (13.3%), Cu (22.2%), Fe (14.3%), Ni (14.3%), S (22.2%), Y (35.6%), and Zr (28.6%). In general, the RPD between duplicate samples of each element was inversely proportional to their overall concentration. Repeat analysis of a certified lake water standard (TMDA-70) indicated major components of the water were accurate well within 20% with learn more one exception Si (23.3%). Prior to ion chromatography analysis certified reference standards were run. Standards included Fluka multi-anion standard (89886-50 mL-F) for F, Cl, Br, NO3, PO4, SO4, Fluka (72784-1 L-F) for CO3, and Fluka (36427-100 ml-F) for NO2. If the values determined for the reference

standard differed from the accepted value by more than 5% for each analyte the instrument was recalibrated until this limit was achieved. The method detection limits were calculated by performing seven replicate injections of nanopure water fortified at a concentration of three to five times the estimated instrument detection limits then adjusted Morin Hydrate downwards. Duplicate samples indicate reported values for each anion had a RPD of 10% or less. None of the anions were found above detection limits in blank samples. Recovery of standards based on seven injections ranged from 95.1 (CO3) to 106% (NO2-N). The data were compiled and summarized in Excel® spreadsheets. Standard statistical parameters (mean,

standard deviation, relative percent difference, etc.) were determined through the use of an Excel spreadsheet and used to determine the quality and range of the data and display relevant results. Correlation coefficients (r2) were calculated to determine the potential correlation between various analytes and other parameters and concentration trends with distance downriver. During the September 4th, 2011 Tropical Storm Irene stormflow sampling event the pH of water in the Raquette River ranged from 5.20 to 6.47, with the exception of a single sample collected at Raymondville which had a pH of 8.21 (Supplemental Table 3). Because this was clearly an outlier, the pH was measured several times for verification with the same result. The specific conductance during this sampling event ranged from 22.98 to 65.06 μS cm−1, with the sole exception of the Raymondville sample which was anomalous at 160.44 μS cm−1. Water temperature ranged from 21.2 to 25.

Enteral nutrition is the recommended route of intake. Human milk is preferred for infants. Marthe J. Moseley Chronic critical illness is a problem in the critical care environment. The ultimate goal in managing care for the chronically critically ill is liberation from mechanical ventilation, leading to improved survival and enhanced quality of life. Clinical Sirolimus price practice guidelines are presented as a framework in providing care for this distinct patient population. Research studies supplement the recommendations to ensure best care guides critical care decisions using the best evidence in the context of patient values and clinical expertise. Jan Powers and Karen Samaan Malnutrition has been identified as a cause for disease as well

as a condition resulting from inflammation associated with acute or chronic disease. Malnutrition is common in acute-care settings, occurring in 30% to 50% of hospitalized patients. Inflammation has been associated with malnutrition and malnutrition has been associated with compromised immune status, infection, and increased intensive care unit (ICU) and hospital lengths of stay. The ICU nurse is in the best position to advocate for appropriate nutritional therapies and Pirfenidone order facilitate the safe delivery of nutrition. Jody Collins Nutrition and care considerations in the overweight

and obese population within the critical care setting are multifaceted. Patients requiring critical care have specialized care management needs that often

times challenge health care providers. When patients are obese, this further complicates the physiologic aspects of healing, thus creating challenges to meeting both the nutritional needs of the individual and hampering treatment. This article reviews the care considerations, physiology of bariatric patients, and challenges of providing safe and quality care, including current evidence-based practice strategies developed to provide optimal support for obese patients during hospitalization and within the critical care setting. Gordana Bosnic This article presents an overview of postoperative check details nutritional requirements and goals following bariatric surgery. It summarizes current diet progression and nutrient intake guidelines geared toward optimizing weight loss and maintaining adequate nutritional status, nutrient absorption, as well as hydration. The article further emphasizes the importance of postoperative follow-up with a bariatric multidisciplinary team for appropriate postoperative care, diet management, and nutrient deficiency screenings. Miranda K. Kelly Enteral nutrition is an important aspect of caring for critically ill patients, yet delays in implementation of guidelines and recommendations occur. Bedside caregivers are in a key position to evaluate current practice and lead change to implement evidence-based practice guidelines. Interdisciplinary teams can use change models, such as Larrabee’s, to provide guidance and support success of practice change projects.

The objectives of this experiment were to (a) determine the virulence (median lethal GW572016 concentration, i.e. LC50) of the two fungal isolates against early third instar D. radicum larvae, (b) estimate the LC90 for use in the T. rapae dual-choice bioassays (see Section 2.5.2 below) and (c) determine the time–mortality response at different concentrations. From the stock conidia suspensions the following concentrations were prepared; 1 × 104, 1 × 105, 1 × 106, 1 × 107,

1 × 108 and 1 × 109 conidia ml−1 and a control with sterile 0.05% Triton-X 100. Separate batches of 10 third instar larvae were immersed in 5 ml of the respective suspensions by placing them on the edge of a test tube and carefully pushing them into the suspension with a sterile inoculation loop moistened by the suspension. The test tube was vortexed for 1 s, after which the larvae were left in the suspension for 20 s, and then poured onto a filter paper in a Büchner funnel and left to air dry for 1 min. The larvae were transferred individually to separate 30 ml medicine Palbociclib cups (Hammarplast Medical AB, Sweden) with 20 × 20 mm filter papers, moistened by deionized water, placed on the wall of the cup. The cups were incubated in darkness at 20 ± 1 °C. After 24 h the filter paper was removed and a thin slice of turnip (15 × 15 × 3 mm) was provided to each larva allowing for observation of larval condition with minimum disturbance. Avoiding placement

of items in the cups during the first 24 h minimized the opportunity for larvae to mechanically remove conidia from the cuticle. The turnip slice was replaced every five days. The larvae were checked daily for mortality for 7 days, since pupation started after this period. Dead larvae were

surface sterilized in 10% sodiumhypochlorite (Sigma–Aldrich, Sweden) for 5 s, then rinsed in deionized water for an additional 5 s after which they were incubated in sealed medicine cups under moist conditions. Montelukast Sodium As a criterion of mycosis the color of infected larvae, subsequent mycelial protrusion and the formation of distinctive conidia was used. Infected larvae usually turned characteristically hard and cream-colored for M. brunneum and pinkish purple for B. bassiana prior to emergence of mycelia. Mycelia protrusion usually occurred from mycosed larvae the day after death with subsequent formation of conidia. The treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design on trays (270 × 197 mm, Hammarplast Medical AB, Sweden) in polystyrene boxes (310 × 225 × 126 mm, COFA, Sweden). The experiment was replicated on four different occasions, each time with 10 larvae for each concentration and fungal isolate. Bioassays with the two fungal isolates were performed in order to (a) determine the virulence (LC50) to adult T. rapae, and (b) determine the time–mortality relationships at different concentrations. The concentrations prepared were: 1 × 105, 1 × 106, 1 × 107, 1 × 108 and 1 × 109 conidia ml−1 and a control with 0.

This could make allostatic load an important, early predictor of disease risk and improve our understanding of how physiological damage develops across the body. There is growing evidence that allostatic load is socially patterned, with higher allostatic load associated with lower socioeconomic

position (SEP), including SEP measured contemporaneously with allostatic load, as well as over time and during developmentally-important life stages such as childhood (measured distally to allostatic load) (Gruenewald et al., 2012, Gustafsson et al., 2011, Gustafsson et al., 2012, Hawkley et al., 2011 and Robertson et al., 2014). However, less is known about the potential pathways that link SEP and allostatic load. Three major mediating pathways have been suggested between SEP and health, namely material factors (e.g. income, employment status, ownership of material goods Selleck Tofacitinib SP600125 solubility dmso such

as a car or home), psychosocial (e.g. stress)/psychological (e.g. distress) factors and health behaviors (e.g. smoking, alcohol consumption) ( Fig. 1) Adler and Ostrove, 1999 and Adler and Stewart, 2010. Given the evidence for links between SEP and health, SEP and allostatic load, and allostatic load and health, we propose that these same potential mediators could be involved in mediating the relationship between SEP and allostatic load. Given the theoretical links between the allostatic load concept and the stress response, and lower SEP and increased stressful environment ( Baum et al., 1999, Brunner, Phospholipase D1 1997 and Cohen et al., 2006), it would be expected that psychosocial/psychological factors would be important explanatory factors for the relationship between SEP and allostatic load ( McEwen, 2001, McEwen, 2006 and Stewart, 2006). The socially patterned material factors linking SEP and allostatic load could relate to increased exposure to harmful conditions in the workplace, home and neighborhood, including toxins, damp, overcrowding, etc., as well as being interlinked to psychosocial factors (such as low control and high stress) that lead to psychological distress, which may play a role in both damaging and preventing

repair to multiple physiological systems in the body. The carcinogens and health-damaging components in tobacco, alcohol, and some foods (and the lack of restorative efforts brought about by low physical activity) have the potential to impact on allostatic load, and are typically socially patterned. While these three pathways have distinct components, they are not mutually exclusive and are likely to combine in mediating the SEP–allostatic load association ( Bartley, 2003). There has been evidence that some health behaviors, as well as a mix of psychosocial and psychological factors, explain some part of the SEP–allostatic load association ( Gruenewald et al., 2012, Gustafsson et al., 2011, Gustafsson et al., 2012 and Hawkley et al., 2011). However, the number of studies are limited, the results inconsistent and material factors have had limited attention.

The presence of LPS in treated samples was evaluated by Limuls Amebocyte Lysate test (LAL-Charlys River). The hemorrhagic activity of Triton-treated jararhagin was measures in the mouse skin ( Kondo et al., 1960) and cell viability assay was evaluated by MTT method ( Tanjoni et al., 2005). Jararhagin LPS-free was used for all cell culture experiments. Human vascular

endothelial cells (HUVECS) obtained from umbilical cords of newborns (Hospital Veliparib of University of São Paulo: Ethical Committee for Human Protocol: 526/04) were aseptically harvested in our laboratory as described before (Jaffe et al., 1973) and cultured on 0.1% gelatin-coated plastic bottles (75 cm2) in the presence of RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10% Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS), 2 mM l-glutamine, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, 100 UI/mL penicillin, 100 mg/mL streptomycin, 50 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, 5 U/mL heparin, 20 ng/mL bFGF, and 10 ng/mL EGF. The cells were used until the 5th passage. The cells were grown in 25 cm2 plastic bottles until reach a confluent monolayer and then they were

treated with different doses of jararhagin diluted in the supernatant, during 1, 3, 6, 24 or 48 h, according to the experiment. Cells treated with PBS diluted in the supernatant Target Selective Inhibitor Library cell assay were used as control group. Cell viability and cell detachment induced by jararhagin was evaluated using the MTT assay (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide). Cells were seeded at the concentration of 5 × 104 ADP ribosylation factor cells per well in 96 well microplates, previously coated with

gelatin 1%. After 24 h, the medium was changed and supplemented with the same complements cited above, except the growth factors. The samples containing jararhagin (100, 200, 400 or 600 nM) and negative controls (PBS 1:10 in culture media or LPS 1 mg/mL) were added in the time zero and kept during the time course of the experiment (48 h) in 37 °C with 5% CO2. The total cell lyses was induced by sterile distilled water. For the experiment of cell viability, after 24 and 48 h, 20 μL/well of MTT (5 mg/mL diluted in PBS) was added to the culture medium and kept for 3 h at 37 °C. The formazan crystals resulting from MTT reduction were dissolved by addition of 100 μL of PBS containing 10% SDS and 0.01 N HCl (18 h, 37 °C and 5% CO2) and the infrared light absorption was read using an plate spectrophotometer (Multiskan EX – Thermo) at 490 nm. To quantify the cell detachment induced by jararhagin, the same procedure for cell culture was used, however after 24 or 48 h the detached cells were removed by two careful washes using PBS and the remaining cells were stained by MTT assay as described above. For both experiments, the absorbance was read on a multiwell scanning spectrophotometer (ELISA reader) using a filter of 570 nm.

The Baltic Nest Institute (BNI) compiled a uniform dataset based on measurements of monthly discharge and nutrient concentrations of total

N (TN) and total P (TP) for 117 catchments flowing into the Baltic Sea (Mörth et al., 2007 and Smedberg et al., 2006). Time series of 84 catchments span the period 1970–2000, while 33 catchments have data available for the period 1980–2000. Data after the year 2000 are not available. To complement these data, monthly averages of temperature and precipitation of each catchment were obtained from the E-OBS gridded dataset (Haylock et al., 2008, http://eca.knmi.nl). This is a high resolution grid (10 km × 10 km) based on roughly 250 weather stations in Europe (Haylock Selleckchem Venetoclax et al., 2008). Also, fractions of land cover for the year 2000 in the BSDB were retrieved from the Corine Land-use dataset for European catchments. For catchments in Russia, the Global Land Cover dataset was used. These two datasets were merged by the BNI (Mörth et al., 2007). The types of land cover extracted are artificial (urban) area, cultivated area, deciduous forest, coniferous forest, mixed forest, shrubs and herbs, wetlands and water bodies Selleckchem Akt inhibitor (rivers

and lakes). For some years in six catchments located in Estonia, Latvia and Russia (one catchment in the period 1970–1976 and five catchments in the period 1994–2000) only yearly average values for discharge, TN and TP were reported. To restore the monthly seasonality in the data for these catchments and periods, the average monthly deviations from the yearly mean derived from the years with monthly measurements were used to correct the reported yearly average value. Six other catchments were rejected completely for analysis because both monthly and yearly variability was lacking for the period 1980–1990. The rejected catchments were located in the Danish ADP ribosylation factor Straits and the Kattegat. In this study, it was worthwhile to distinguish

between nutrient concentrations and loads (hereafter referred to as TNC, TPC for concentrations and TNL, TPL for loads). In addition, we considered specific loads of nutrients (kg km−2 yr−1) obtained by multiplying concentrations with the discharge and dividing by catchment size. Total loads (kg yr−1) were also considered in this study. With the total load, the net changes in TN and TP exported to the Baltic Sea were calculated. From the total loads, the N:P (mass) ratio was derived which formed another important variable in this study. To analyze potential differences in processes impacting nutrient loads and concentrations by societal change, the BSDB was split up in east and west. All catchments that were located at the eastern side of the historical iron curtain were labelled as ‘east’, the remaining catchments as ‘west’ (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 show this division).