(11). Reports from Singapore, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia,

Thailand, and Indonesia have shown that in Asian tropical countries, influenza activity peaks in the rainy season (8, 12–17), consistent with our results (Fig. 1). Given the high incidence of human cases of H5N1 virus infection in Indonesia, it is critical to continue monitoring of human influenza in this country to ensure adequate pandemic preparedness. We thank Mia I. Dewisavitry for excellent technical assistance and Susan Watson for editing the manuscript. This work is supported by the Program of Founding Research Centers for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology, Japan, and in part by Grants-in-Aid for Specially Promoted Research and for Scientific Research, by ERATO (Japan Science and Technology Agency), 3-deazaneplanocin A chemical structure Cetuximab ic50 by the National Institute of

Allergy and Infectious Diseases Public Health Service research grants, USA, and by the Center for Research on Influenza Pathogenesis (CRIP) funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (Contract HHSN266200700010C). “
“The distal pole complex (DPC) assembles signalling proteins at the T cell pole opposite the immunological synapse (IS) and is thought to facilitate T cell activation by sequestering negative regulatory molecules away from the T cell receptor-proximal signalling machinery. Here, we report the translocation of type I protein kinase A (PKA) to the DPC in a fraction of T cells following activation and the localization of type I PKA with known components of the DPC. We propose that sequestration of type ioxilan I PKA and concomitant loss of cAMP-mediated negative regulation at the IS may be necessary to allow full T cell activation. Moreover, composition of the DPC appears to be modulated by type I PKA activity, as the antagonist Rp-8-Br-cAMPS inhibited translocation of type I PKA and other DPC proteins. Sustained

TCR activation results in the formation of the distal pole complex (DPC) [1], an assembly of signalling proteins at the T cell pole opposite the immunological synapse (IS). Functionally, the DPC [2, 3] appears to facilitate T cell activation by serving as a sink for negative regulators, or provides a signalling complex in its own right, possibly involved in establishment of T cell polarity [3]. A key component of the DPC, ezrin [2], is linked through its interaction with ezrin/radixin/moesin (ERM)-binding phosphoprotein of 50 kDa (EBP50) to the transmembrane adaptor protein phosphoprotein associated with glycosphingolipid-enriched microdomains (PAG), both implicated in the DPC [4]. Ezrin is an A-kinase anchoring protein (AKAP) targeting type I protein kinase A (PKA) to lipid rafts [5]. Tyrosine-phosphorylated PAG in turn recruits the negative regulator of Src kinases, C-terminal Src kinase (Csk), to the raft compartment [6, 7].

[21] Due to the clinical suspicion of CJD, the autopsy was limited to the brain. The fresh brain weighed 1376 g and was cut after 2 weeks of fixation (CJD was excluded after preliminary examination of multiple brain samples). The cerebral hemispheres showed only mild ventricular

dilatation. The cerebellum displayed minimal atrophy of the superior vermis and large geographic areas of poorly demarcated, greyish discoloration of the white matter, more in the left hemisphere. Microscopic examination revealed extensive Ulixertinib loss of myelin involving the white matter of both cerebellar hemispheres, slightly more on the left side (Fig. 1). Demyelination was accompanied by a significant dropout of axons, numerous axonal retraction balls, accumulation of ferritin-positive microglia and CD68+ foamy macrophages, and a moderate Navitoclax supplier to severe degree of astrocytosis. These changes were most expressed in the centers of the lesions and gradually blended with relatively normal white matter with numerous small satellite foci of early myelin loss. The periphery of the demyelinated areas displayed

many oligodendroglial cells with enlarged nuclei filled by homogeneous, intensely purple intranuclear viral inclusions that were weakly immunoreactive for P53 and strongly positive for JCV antigens. Scattered vessels at the edge of the lesions were surrounded by mild CD8+ inflammatory infiltrations, with few CD3+ and CD4+ T-cells, and no CD20+ B-cells. The population of Purkinje cells and granule cells, as well as neurons in the dentate nucleus appeared normal. The cerebellar cortex contained scattered axonal torpedoes of Purkinje cells. The overall pathological changes were consistent with chronic PML lesions. The brainstem showed multiple small patches of demyelination with centrifugal

distribution of oligodendroglial intranuclear inclusions (Fig. 2A,B) and numerous foci of perivascular infiltrations by CD8+ T-cells, and less abundant PR 171 CD3+ and CD4+ T-cells (Fig. 3A,B). CD20+ B-cells were entirely absent. The perivascular myelin was not affected. Clusters of normal-appearing neurons outside of areas of demyelination were surrounded by CD8+ T-cells and microglia (Fig. 4A,B). In addition, the parenchyma of the pons was sprinkled with small collections or individual CD8+ cells without relation to the vessels or neurons. Very careful screening of sections of the brainstem revealed no direct contact of CD8+ T-cells with the oligodendroglial cells containing intranuclear inclusions. CD68+ macrophages and ferritin-positive microglia were massively increased in foci of demyelination and, to a lesser extent, diffusely throughout the entire brainstem. Scattered, well-formed microglial nodules were present as well.

1C. Crosses indicate the death of individual mice at the marked time point. Data were obtained from three separate experiments. “
“Male patients with female-stem-cell donors have better prognosis compared to female-to-male combinations due to Y-encoded minor histocompatibility antigens recognized by female-alloimmune-effector lymphocytes in the context of a graft-versus-leukemia (GvL) effect. We provide data

in a dog-model that the minor histocompatibility antigen UTY might be a promising target to further improve GvL-immune reactions after allogeneic-stem-cell transplantations. Female-canine-UTY-specific T cells (CTLs) were stimulated in vitro using autologous-DCs loaded with three OTX015 datasheet HLA-A2-restricted-UTY-derived peptides (3-fold-expansion), and specific T cell responses were determined in 3/6 female dogs. CTLs specifically recognized/lysed autologous-female-peptide-loaded DCs, but not naïve-autologous-female DCs and monocytes. They mainly recognized bone-marrow (BM) and to a lower extent DCs, monocytes, PBMCs and B-cells from DLA-identical-male littermates

and peptide-loaded T2-cells in an MHC-I-restricted manner. A UTY-/male-specific reactivity was also obtained in vivo after stimulation of a female dog with DLA-identical-male PBMCs. In summary, we demonstrated natural UTY processing and presentation in dogs. We showed that female-dog CTLs were specifically stimulated by HLA-A2-restricted-UTY peptides, thereby enabling recognition of selleck chemicals DLA-identical-male cells, mainly BM cells. These observations suggest UTY as a promising candidate-antigen to improve GvL-reactions

in the course of immunotherapy. Allogeneic-stem-cell Obeticholic Acid molecular weight transplantation (alloSCT) represents the only curative therapy for many patients with haematological-malignancies including leukemia. The therapeutic-effect is mediated by donor-derived immune-effector cells infused with donor-lymphocyte transfusion (DLT) after transplantation. This approach is successful in treating relapsed myeloid-malignancies [1]. The favourable graft-versus-leukemia (GvL) effect of donor-lymphocytes is mainly mediated by allo-reactive T cells recognizing antigens (Ags) on hematopoietic-cells including the malignant leukemic-cells of the patients [2, 3]. These T cells can also be reactive towards healthy-tissues and cause graft-versus-host-disease (GvHD) [4, 5]. Own clinical observations demonstrated that in haploidentical-transplantations female-donors (especially mothers) show a higher GvL-effect against male-recipients (particularly sons) compared to all other haploidentical donor-recipient combinations [6, 7] (H. J. Kolb, unpublished data). These reactions might be due to the existence of male-associated antigens [8]. The Y-chromosome coded minor histocompatibility antigen (mHA) UTY (ubiquitously-transcribed-tetratrico-peptide-repeat-gene, Y-linked) could be a new immunotherapeutically useful potential candidate-target structure [8, 9].

retortaeformis and the persistence GDC-0449 of G. strigosum. A very special thanks to Fabienne Audebert for having enthusiastically inspired and guided IMC to the understanding of T. retortaeformis and G. strigosum parasitology. Special thanks to James McGoldrick and Brian Boag for their patience in embarking on long-term discussions on the biology of helminths and parasitological techniques with IMC and LM. Also but not last IMC is grateful to Peter J. Hudson for discussing the theory of this study while commuting to work. The authors thank A. Pathak for critical comments on the early manuscript. This study and LM were funded by a HFSP and a Royal Society grant. Figure S1. Mean absorbance (OD index ± standard

errors) of systemic (serum) and local (mucus) antibody response against somatic Trichostrongylus retortaeformis third larval stage by: treatment (infected and controls), sampling time [weeks post infection (WPI) or days post infection (DPI)] and PI3K inhibitor small intestine location (from SI-1 to SI-4) for mucus. Week -1: sampling was performed the week

antecedent the infection. Figure S2. Mean absorbance (OD index ± standard errors) of systemic (serum) and localized (mucus) antibody response against whole third larval stage of Graphidium strigosum by: treatment (infected and controls), sampling time [weeks post infection (WPI) or days post infection (DPI)] and stomach location (top and bottom) for stomach. Week -1: sampling was performed the week antecedent the infection. “
“Severe pneumonia and leukocytosis are characteristic, frequently observed, clinical findings in pediatric patients with pandemic A/H1N1/2009 influenza virus infection. The aim of this study was to elucidate the role of cytokines and chemokines in complicating pneumonia and leukocytosis in patients with pandemic A/H1N1/2009 influenza virus infection. Forty-seven patients with pandemic A/H1N1/2009 influenza virus infection were enrolled in this study. Expression of interleukin (IL)-10 (P = 0.027) and IL-5 (P = 0.014) was significantly greater in patients with pneumonia than in those without

Sclareol pneumonia. Additionally, serum concentrations of interferon-γ (P = 0.009), tumor necrosis factor-α (P = 0.01), IL-4 (P = 0.024), and IL-2 (P = 0.012) were significantly lower in pneumonia patients with neutrophilic leukocytosis than in those without neutrophilic leukocytosis. Of the five serum chemokine concentrations assessed, only IL-8 was significantly lower in pneumonia patients with neutrophilic leukocytosis than in those without leukocytosis (P = 0.001). These cytokines and chemokines may play important roles in the pathogenesis of childhood pneumonia associated with A/H1N1/2009 influenza virus infection. A/H1N1/2009 influenza virus infection was first reported from Mexico in early March 2009 (1). Soon after discovery of this virus, pandemic infection with it occurred worldwide, including Japan.

In the recent year, timing for initiation of dialysis in advance CKD patients has been discussed widely, and there is a trend of not to dialysis patient solely depends https://www.selleckchem.com/products/epacadostat-incb024360.html on the level of GFR or serum creatinine. If patients have no life-threatening condition or without major uremic symptom/sign, it is suggested dialysis could be delayed. In Taiwan, it has been a rule to initiate dialysis at a very low level of GFR, no matter due to Insurance regulation or patient’s willing. Our unique experience in dialysis initiation could provide more information for other countries. LIEW ADRIAN Department of Renal Medicine,

Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore As a renal replacement therapy, renal transplantation confers the best survival advantage over dialysis for the patient with end-stage renal disease (ESRD)1. The transplantation of these patients prior to the initiation of dialysis therapy, known widely as preemptive renal transplantation, offers the advantage of avoiding the complications, morbidities, and infrastructure and manpower

costs associated with dialysis access and therapy. The further argument for preemptive transplantation stems selleck chemicals llc from the unfavorable death rates among waitlisted patients compared with transplant recipients2. Indeed, large analyses of registry data, albeit retrospective in nature, had demonstrated that preemptive renal transplantation leads to considerable improvements in allograft and patient survival2,3, when compared to transplantation after a period of dialysis therapy. In fact, with incremental time on dialysis, the risk of graft loss and patient death after transplantation had been shown to increase linearly4. While the exact reasons for these improved outcomes with preemptive renal transplantation had not been clear, several observations had been made that could provide some information towards the contributing factors. Delayed graft function and biopsy-confirmed acute eltoprazine rejection are well known to have negative effects on graft survival, and the association of preemptive transplantation with

lower rates of these occurrences5 could contribute to its superior outcomes noted in these large analyses. The low solute clearances associated with dialysis therapy expose patients to risks of accelerated atherosclerosis, malnutrition and chronic inflammation, which are adverse outcomes that can be avoided with preemptive transplantation5. Preemptive transplant recipients have also been found to have socioeconomic and demographic features that predict better outcomes, namely younger age, higher educational background, economic viability and fewer HLA antigen mismatches3,6. Furthermore, it had also been implied that preemptive transplantation alone could have direct beneficial effects on graft survival. The precise timing to proceed with preemptive transplantation remains controversial.

The PCR-sequencing of 30 A. flavus isolates detected from clinical and environmental samples confirmed the mycological

selleck chemical identification. Our findings underline the importance of environmental surveillance and strict application of preventive measures. “
“Cysteine dioxygenase (CDO) is involved in regulation of intracellular cysteine levels by catabolising the cysteine to sulphite and sulphate. In keratinolytic fungi, sulphite is actively excreted to reduce disulphide bridges in keratin before its enzymatic degradation. The pathogenicity role of CDO was confirmed in cysteine-hypersensitive and growth-defective ΔCdo mutant of Arthroderma benhamiae on hair and nails. We analysed the CDO expression regulation in T. mentagrophytes (anamorph of A. benhamiae) mycelia by determining

the Cdo mRNA and CDO protein levels and by analysing the proportion of two molecular forms of CDO in response to l-cystine exposure. Cdo mRNA levels in mycelia lysates were detected by reverse-transcription real-time polymerase chain reaction and CDO protein by western blot using mouse CDO-specific hyperimmune serum. The Cdo mRNA level increased gradually 2.5–4.5 h after exposure of the mycelium to l-cystine. The CDO protein, detected as two bands of different mobility, appeared earlier in comparison to mRNA (1 h) and culminated after 24 h. More mobile form prevailed after 4.5 h. The comparison of the dynamics in the PD 332991 Cdo mRNA and CDO protein levels indicates that T. mentagrophytes responds to l-cystine by increased transcription and apparently decreased degradation of the CDO and by changing towards higher mobility molecular form, similar to previous reports describing mammalian analogue. check details “
“Cysteine dioxygenase (CDO, EC 1.13.11.20) catalyses the oxygenation of cysteine to cysteine sulphinic acid leading to the production

of sulphite, sulphate and taurine as the final metabolites of cysteine catabolism. Keratinolytic fungi secrete sulphite and sulphate to reduce disulphide bridges in host tissue keratin proteins as the first step of keratinolysis. In the present study, we describe the identification of cDNA, as well as expression and characterisation of recombinant CDO protein from Trichophyton mentagrophytes. The cDNA was amplified using primers designed on the basis of high conservancy CDO regions identified in other fungi. PCR product was cloned and sequenced. Recombinant CDO was expressed in Escherichia coli, and affinity purified and identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization – time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Enzyme activity was assayed by monitoring the production of cysteine sulphinate using mass spectrometry. The Cdo cDNA encodes for a protein consisting of 219 amino acids. Recombinant CDO protein C-terminally fused with a His tag was purified by affinity chromatography. The CDO purified under native condition was proved to be enzymatically active. Protein identity was confirmed by MALDI-TOF MS.

To evade destruction by the host immune system, the spirochete has developed evasion strategies such as antigenic variation of surface proteins. Zhang and co-workers first

described antigenic variation of a 35-kDa surface lipoprotein in selleck inhibitor B. burgdorferi which they termed VlsE (variable major protein-like sequence; Zhang et al., 1997). VlsE is similar to the well characterized variable major protein (Vmp) of the relapsing fever Borrelia (Barbour, 1993). The vlsE locus is encoded on the lp28-1 plasmid and consists of the vlsE expression site and 15 silent cassettes (Zhang et al., 1997). Within each silent cassette, there are six variable regions (VR-I through VR-VI) and six highly conserved regions. Importantly, the VlsE regions of variability are located on the membrane distal portion of the protein, which is more likely to

come in contact with antibody during mammalian infection (Eicken et al., 2001). During mammalian infection, regions of the expressed vlsE cassette are replaced with regions of the silent cassettes through a gene conversion mechanism that can result in numerous vlsE sequence products (Zhang et al., 1997; Zhang & Norris, 1998a, b). Sequence variation occurs in all six of the variable regions of the expression site, but the sequence of the silent cassettes is conserved (Zhang et al., 1997; Zhang & Norris, 1998a, b). In mice, variability of vlsE is observed as early as 4 days postinfection (Zhang & Norris, 1998b). These changes find more continue during the duration of the infection and occur at greater frequencies at later time points postinfection (Zhang & Norris, 1998b). Interestingly, clonal populations of B. burgdorferi grown in vitro or maintained within ticks retain the parental vlsE sequence, and sequence variation in immunocompetent mice occurred at a greater rate as compared to variation of vlsE in SCID mice (Zhang & Norris, 1998b). These data suggest that conversion is dependent on mammalian factors and that selection of vlsE variants occurs in the presence of an intact

immune response (Zhang et al., 1997; Zhang & Norris, 1998b; Indest et al., 2001). Presence of lp28-1, the vlsE encoding plasmid, is correlated with an intermediate infectivity phenotype of B. burgdorferi in which the spirochetes are unable to persist Oxymatrine in tissues (Purser & Norris, 2000; Labandeira-Rey & Skare, 2001). However, strains lacking lp28-1 are able to infect and persist in SCID mice, suggesting that lp28-1 is required for B. burgdorferi to survive in the presence of an intact immune system (Labandeira-Rey et al., 2003; Purser et al., 2003). A B. burgdorferi strain lacking vlsE expression was developed by deleting the region encoding this locus (Bankhead & Chaconas, 2007). Importantly, the VlsE-mutant strain demonstrated a phenotype similar to an lp28-1-deficient B. burgdorferi strain. The combined data suggest VlsE as an important virulence determinant of B. burgdorferi.

, 1990; Beggs, 1994). In vitro exposure of planktonic cells to amphotericin B often leads to a repression of ERG3 and ERG11 expression and a

concomitant decrease in ergosterol levels in the membrane, indicating that changes in the sterol composition are important for amphotericin B resistance in C. albicans (Liu et al., 2005). Furthermore, changes in the expression of genes involved in β-1,6-glucan EPZ-6438 nmr biosynthesis (including SKN1 and KRE1) have also been proposed as a resistance mechanism against polyene antifungals (Gale, 1986; Mio et al., 1997; Liu et al., 2005). Antifungal resistance in C. albicans biofilms is a complex phenomenon, and like in planktonic cells, multiple mechanisms appear to be involved (Kuhn & Ghannoum, 2004). It was reported that efflux pumps are highly expressed in young biofilms (Ramage et al., 2002; Mukherjee et al., 2003; Mateus et al., 2004), even in the absence of an antifungal agent. However, the expression of genes encoding efflux pumps (CDR and MDR family) seems to be model system and/or strain dependent as CDR and MDR genes were not found to be overexpressed in the transcriptome studies of Garcia-Sanchez et al. (2004) and Murillo et al. (2005).

Nevertheless, some genes (including QDR1 and CDR4) appeared to be overexpressed in the study by Yeater et al. (2007) and other genes (including CDR2 at 12 h and MDR1 at 12 and at 24 h) were overexpressed in the in vivo model described by Nett et al. (2009). Reduced ergosterol levels (combined with Selleckchem Ponatinib increased levels of other sterols) also provide a possible resistance mechanism in biofilms (Mukherjee

et al., 2003) and changes in the expression levels of ERG genes were observed in several studies (Yeater et al., 2007; Nett et al., 2009). These changes probably lead to changes in the sterol composition of the cell membrane and may have a profound impact on antifungal resistance. Khot et al. (2006) and LaFleur et al. (2006) showed that resistant subpopulations (persisters) are present in C. albicans biofilms. Using untreated biofilms, Khot et al. (2006) compared the less-resistant, crotamiton shear-removed, fraction of the biofilm with the basal blastospore subpopulation. In the latter, a marked downregulation of the ERG1 gene was observed, probably resulting in an overall downregulation of the ergosterol biosynthesis (remarkably, the expression of ERG11 was not altered). SKN1 and KRE1 were markedly upregulated in this resistant subpopulation. These changes in gene expression likely contributed to the observed amphotericin B resistance. When C. albicans biofilms in various stages of growth were treated with very high doses of fluconazole, an overexpression of genes involved in the ergosterol biosynthesis (ERG1, 3, 11 and 25) was observed, whereas after exposure to amphotericin B, an upregulation of SKN1 and KRE1 was observed. The transcriptional changes in sessile C.

As eye-trackers become more prevalent in infancy research, there is the potential for users to be

unaware of dangers lurking “under the hood” if they assume the eye-tracker introduces no errors in measuring infants’ gaze. Moreover, the influx of voluminous data sets from eye-trackers requires users to think hard about what they are measuring and what these measures mean for making inferences about underlying cognitive processes. The present Selleck MI-503 commentary highlights these concerns, both technical and interpretive, and reviews the five articles that comprise this Special Issue. “
“Developmental changes in learning from peers and adults during the second year of life were assessed using an imitation paradigm. Independent groups of 15- and 24-month-old infants watched a prerecorded

video of an unfamiliar child or adult model demonstrating a series of actions with objects. When learning was assessed immediately, 15-month-old infants imitated the target actions from the adult, but not the peer whereas 24-month-old infants imitated https://www.selleckchem.com/products/ABT-888.html the target actions from both models. When infants’ retention was assessed after a 10-min delay, only 24-month-old infants who had observed the peer model exhibited imitation. Across both ages, there was a significant positive correlation between the number of actions imitated from the peer and the length of regular peer exposure reported by caregivers. Length of peer exposure was not related to imitation from the adult model. Taken together, these findings indicate that a peer-model advantage develops as a function of age and experience during the second year of life. “
“Infants typically exhibit a shift from unimanual to bimanual reaching toward

the end of their first year, which has been linked to walking onset. Until now, however, it has been unclear whether it was the onset of walking per se that influenced reaching Galeterone patterns or whether a more general shift to an upright posture might have prompted the reorganization of the motor system. To address this question, the current study longitudinally chronicled the uni- and bimanual reaching preferences of 25 infants every 3 weeks starting at 7 months, prior to the onset of pulling-to-stand and through the onset of cruising. Experimenters recorded infants’ reaching behavior via a semi-structured reaching procedure and documented their motor development. There was no relationship between the shift from uni- to bimanual reaching and the onset of pulling-to-stand. However, the onset of cruising was related to a shift in reaching pattern preference, suggesting that the increase in infants’ bimanual reaching was prompted by a reorganization of the motor system in which the arms are recruited for use in new ways to support locomotion. We also discuss individual differences in the trajectory of reaching activity in terms of the pitfalls of using age as an explanatory variable.

79, which differed significantly from chance, t(13) = 3.92, p = .002. Infants produced an average of approximately 1.5 additional vocalizations during the impossible cube display above that of the possible cube display and the perceptual controls. This pattern of behavior was consistent in 10 infants, with two infants vocalizing equally and two infants vocalizing more during the possible cube display, Z = 2.72, p = .007. By contrast,

there were no reliable differences in vocalizations made during presentation of the possible cube versus the other perceptual control stimuli (all p-values > .68). The frequency of infants’ mouthing behavior toward each of the displays was also Dabrafenib in vivo recorded. Interestingly, five infants engaged in mouthing behavior, PD-0332991 purchase but only toward the impossible cube display, t(13) = 2.69, p < .02, and they did not use oral exploration for any of the other displays. This pattern of behavior was consistent in five of the infants, and nine infants did not engage in any attempted mouthing behavior, Z = 2.24, p = .02. We set out to examine the effects of a perceptual illusion on infants’ manual exploration. Our initial question of whether 9-month-olds would respond differently to picture displays of possible and impossible cubes received a

clear answer: Infants engaged in qualitatively similar types of reaching behaviors (e.g., touching, scratching, rubbing, and patting) toward the possible and impossible cubes as well as the nonobject pictorial control displays, but they directed a significantly greater number of these gestures toward the impossible object display. Thus, by 9 months of age, infants

use the pictorial depth cue of interposition to guide manual investigation of 2D depictions of objects, and they behave differently in response to pictures of possible and impossible objects. Presumably, it was the detection of anomalous depth information that inspired greater visual attention and more persistent manual exploration of the pictures of impossible objects. Perhaps the impossible figure invoked increased interest and exploration because the infants found the unusual geometry so novel and unlike any other objects they Pembrolizumab manufacturer had previously encountered in the world. The impossible cube display also elicited a reliably higher frequency of social referencing to the parent and experimenter, as well as a significantly greater number of vocalizations relative to the possible cube and perceptual control displays. Increased referential looking to the mother (a trusted source) and to the experimenter (a friendly female stranger in close proximity) may be due to the infants’ desire to gather applicable information about the unusual or ambiguous nature of the impossible cube stimulus.