and the cells overexpressing IRS 1. Similar results were observed when the aggre gation of endogenous LC3 protein was directly EPZ-5676 stained with the anti LC3 antibody and the Alexa488 conjugated secondary antibody. These results further sup port that GO induces autophagy. IRS 1 reduces oxidative stress mediated autophagy We hypothesized that oxidative stress induces autophagy via inhibition of IRS 1 Akt mTOR signaling, and that enhancement of the IRS 1 Akt mTOR signaling would reduce oxidative stress mediated autophagy. We exam ined the phosphorylation of p70 S6K at Thr 389 as a representative of mTOR activity, because p70 S6K is the main downstream effector of mTOR. After treatment with GO, LC3B II levels were increased and the extent of phosphorylation of p70 S6K at Thr 389 was reduced in the control cells.

These results confirm that oxidative stress reduces mTOR activity and induces autophagy. In cells overex pressing IRS 1, the influence of GO on LC3B II levels and phosphorylation of p70 S6K at Thr 389 was les sened. These Inhibitors,Modulators,Libraries results suggest that overexpression of IRS 1 attenuates the inhibition of mTOR p70 S6K activity that is induced by treatment with GO, and restores Inhibitors,Modulators,Libraries the ability Inhibitors,Modulators,Libraries of mTOR to regulate autophagy. Effect of IRS 1 on oxidative stress mediated cell fate Low levels of ROS promote cell growth, but high levels induce cell death. We have shown above that IRS 1 reduces oxidative stress mediated autophagy. Although autophagy usually serves as a survival mechanism, exces sive autophagy may lead to cell death.

We stud ied the effect of IRS 1 on oxidative stress mediated cell fate by using the control cells and NIH 3T3 cells overex pressing IRS 1. The quantity of the Inhibitors,Modulators,Libraries reduced form of alamarBlue, an indicator of cell proliferation, was greater in cells overexpressing IRS 1 compared to that in the control cells, indicating that IRS 1 promotes cell proliferation. In addition, the amount of the reduced form of alamarBlue was slightly greater in cells treated with 5 mU ml GO than that in cells without treatment, for both the control cells and the IRS 1 overexpressing cells, indicating that low levels of oxidative stress promoted cell proliferation. However, high levels of oxidative stress resulted in cell death, manifested by rounding of the cells, and detachment of the cells Cilengitide from the culture dish.

We used electron microscopy to observe the morph ologies of cells that perished due to high ROS levels. Wild type NIH 3T3 cells were treated with 10 mU ml GO for 24 h. All cells, whether floating in the medium, or attached to the culture dish, were collected and pre pared for electron gefitinib cancer microscopy. As shown in Figure 7B 1, the cells manifested characteristics of necrosis, including swollen cells and mitochondria, disruption of the cellular membrane, and cell lysis. Autophagic vacuoles had accumulated in the dying cells, indicating that oxidative stress mediated cell death is accompanied by induction of autophagy. We further compared the ex tent of cell death c