​(Fig.5),5), showed a significant decrease among DMD patients compared to controls (mean 6.4 ± 1.6 vs. 10 ± 2.8, p < 0.001). TNF-α and bFGF were significantly ZSTK474 clinical trial higher in DMD patient blood compared to controls (TNF-α: 30.2 ± 9.5 vs. 3.6 ± 0.9 and bFGF: 21.7 ± 10.3 vs. 4.75 ± 2.2), while VEGF was lower in DMD patient blood compared to controls (190 ± 115 vs. 210 ± 142) (Fig. ​(Fig.55). Figure 3 Bax mRNA expression in DMD patients compared to controls. Figure 5 Markers of regeneration: TNFα, bFGF, Bcl-2 and VEGF in blood of DMD patients compared to controls. Discussion In normal skeletal muscle, damage due to contractile force is followed by an Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical inflammatory response

involving multiple cell types that subsides after several days. This transient inflammatory response is a normal homeostatic reaction to muscle damage that induces muscle repair. However

in DMD patients a persistent inflammatory response in their skeletal muscles Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical leads to an altered extracellular environment, including an increased presence of inflammatory cells (e.g., macrophages) and elevated levels of various inflammatory cytokines and growth factors. Unfortunately, the signals that lead to successful muscle repair in healthy Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical muscle may promote muscle wasting and fibrosis in dystrophic muscle (34). TNF-α is an important mediator of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. It was reported that the mean serum TNF-α concentration in Duchenne muscular dystrophy Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical patients was approximately 1,000 times higher than that in healthy subjects (18) and that TNF-α levels are upregulated in dystrophic muscles from animal models and DMD patients (21, 35). Our results are in agreement with such findings. Among its pleiotropic effects, TNF-α acts as a potent inducer of the inflammatory response transcription factor NF-κB (36). Although dystrophin mutations represent the primary cause of DMD, the secondary processes involving persistent inflammation and impaired regeneration Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical are likely to exacerbate disease progression. The microenvironment

of dystrophic muscles consists of elevated numbers of inflammatory cells that act as a complex interface for cytokine signaling (7–9). Fas/FasL interaction is an important trigger for apoptosis in many cell types expressing Fas as a surface marker (26). In the present study plasma Fas has been shown to be significantly Histamine H2 receptor elevated in DMD patients compared to controls. Increased expression of death factor Fas was previously shown to be expressed in muscles of DMD patients compared to controls (37, 38). A significant increase in Bax mRNA relative expression in blood mononuclear cells was associated with a significant decrease in Bcl-2 protein in the present study. It is a widely accepted view that Bax overexpression promotes cell death in response to apoptotic stimuli, whereas Bcl-2 protein inhibits it (39, 40). Increased Bax mRNA expression has been observed in aging human lymphocytes (41, 42).