Moreover, if Chlamydiales

ACP-196 can circumvent the microbicidal action of these secreted factors, they can take advantage of their regulatory immunosuppressive activity. As stated previously, TNF-α has a strong pro-apoptotic activity and can damage epithelial cells as well as immune cells (Perfettini et al., 2003). Inhibition of TNF-α with monoclonal antibodies is nevertheless not a therapeutic option (apart from the side-effects of such monoclonal antibodies) because it would impair the clearance of the bacteria (Darville et al., 1997). Therefore, it is crucial to identify as to which cytokines are used by the pathogen to prevent the immune response, promote their spread or cause strong damage. It is also important to clarify as to which cytokines would affect bacterial clearance least if absent. The study of the host–Chlamydia interaction should use mouse models or primary cells in place of the more traditional immortalized Rapamycin cancerous cell lines. This paradigm shift is driven

by the fact that the innate immune response depends strongly on environmental and differentiation factors. Focusing upon single innate immunity components also proves to be quite inefficient as they often work redundantly and in networks. Therefore, larger screenings and observation of combinations of different components would provide more insight about how Chlamydiales affect the innate immune response. Although different members of the Chlamydiales, and even single strains, elicit distinct innate immunity patterns, key elements may be present

that must be controlled by all members. To determine these factors, Chlamydia-related organisms might be useful, given that they are easier to handle selleck inhibitor than classical Chlamydia. Overall, the study of classical Chlamydia and new Chlamydiales (such as W. chondrophila and P. acanthamoebae) may allow a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying persistent infections as well as dissemination through immune cells. This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (project no. PDFMP3-127302). We thank D. Baud and M.C. Osterheld for kindly providing the histological picture of a C. trachomatis-infected placenta. B.R. is supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation within the PRODOC program ‘Infection and Immunity’. G.G. is supported by the Leenards Foundation through a career award entitled ‘Bourse Leenards pour la relève académique en médecine clinique à Lausanne’. “
“Cytokine gene polymorphisms are known to be associated with functional differences in cytokine regulation and may affect host susceptibility to tuberculosis (TB). Contacts are important group in developing tuberculosis infection and are 10–60 times more likely to develop TB than general population.