e., ��How do you certainly usually describe yourself? White, non-Hispanic [includes Middle Eastern]; Black, non-Hispanic; Hispanic or Latino/a; Asian or Pacific Islander; American Indian, Alaska Native, or Native Hawaiian; Biracial or Multiracial; Other��). Hispanic ethnicity was recoded separately from race, in that anyone who indicated Hispanic ethnicity��regardless of race��was coded as Hispanic. The racial categories were recoded into White (non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), Asian (non-Hispanic), and ��Other�� (non-Hispanic) race. The ��Other�� race category included those respondents who indicated being biracial or multiracial or marked more than one racial category. Due to small sample size, American Indian, Alaska Native, or Native Hawaiian (0.35%) was also recoded into the ��Other�� race category.

Past-year, general measures of violence victimization and discrimination were considered two separate indicators of socially based stressors. Participants completed questions with dichotomous responses (yes/no) about general experiences of the following in the past 12 months: verbally threatened with harm, physical fight, physical assault, sexually touched without consent, attempted sexual penetration without consent, and sexually penetrated without consent; the latter three items were combined to form one variable of any sexual assault. Participants were asked about various experiences in the context of their academics (i.e., ��Within the last 12 months, have any of the following affected your academic performance?��), with one of those experiences being ��discrimination (e.

g., homophobia, racism, sexism).�� Participants indicated one response from the following options: this did not happen to me/not applicable; I have experienced this issue buy my academics have not been affected; received a lower grade on an examination or important project; received lower grade in the course; received an incomplete or dropped the course; significant disruption in thesis, dissertation, research, or practicum work. To operationalize discrimination, the response categories were dichotomized into those who reported no discrimination and those who reported some experience of discrimination. Interactions for race/ethnicity and discrimination and gender and discrimination were tested in multivariate models but were not statistically significant (p = .07�C.84).

A key covariate of smoking behaviors among young adults is binge drinking (Weitzman & Chen, 2005). Thus, a variable was included for AV-951 binge drinking in the previous two weeks (0 = no binge drinking in past two weeks/1 = at least one episode of binge drinking in past two weeks). Analyses were also adjusted for region of the country (Northeast, Midwest, South, West, Outside United States; West as reference), given regional differences in smoking prevalence across the United States and the West having the lowest smoking prevalence (Dube et al., 2010).