, 2006), and the chronological relationship between human colonization and megafaunal extinctions remains controversial (Field et al., 2013). The late Quaternary extinctions of continental megafauna will continue to be debated, but extinctions and other ecological impacts on island ecosystems around the world shortly after find more initial human colonization

are much more clearly anthropogenic in origin (see Rick et al., 2013). These extinctions resulted from direct human hunting, anthropogenic burning and landscape clearing, and the translocation of new plants and animals. Some of the most famous and well-documented of these extinctions come from Madagascar, New Zealand, and other Pacific Islands. In Madagascar, a wide range of megafauna went extinct after human colonization ca. 2300 years ago (Burney et al., 2004). Pygmy hippos, flightless elephant birds, giant tortoises, and large lemurs may have overlapped with humans for a millennium or more, but each went extinct due to human hunting or habitat disturbance. Burney et al. (2003) identified proxy evidence for population decreases of megafauna within a few centuries of human arrival by tracking declines in Sporormiella spp., dung-fungus spores that grow primarily on large mammal dung. This was followed by dramatic increases of Sporormiella spp.

after the introduction of domesticated cattle a millennium later. Shortly after the Maori colonization of New Zealand roughly 1000 years ago, at least eleven species of large, flightless landbirds (moas), along with numerous smaller bird species, went Entinostat in vitro extinct (Diamond, 1989, Fleming, 1962, Grayson, 2001 and Olson and James, 1984). Moa butchery and processing sites are abundant and well-documented in the archeological record (Anderson, 1983 and Anderson, 1989) and recent radiocarbon dating and population modeling suggests that their disappearance occurred within 100

years of first human arrival (Holdaway and Jacomb, 2000). Landbirds across Oceania suffered a similar fate beginning about 3500 years ago as Lapita peoples and later Polynesians colonized the vast Pacific. Thirteen of 17 landbird species went extinct shortly after human arrival on Mangaia in the Cook Islands (Steadman and Kirch, 1990), for example, five of nine on Henderson Island (Wragg and Weisler, 1994), seven of Baf-A1 cell line 10 on Tahuata in the Marquesas (Steadman and Rollett, 1996), 10 of 15 on Huahine in the Society Islands (Steadman, 1997), and six of six on Easter Island (Steadman, 1995) (Table 4). In the Hawaiian Islands, more than 50% of the native avifauna went extinct after Polynesian colonization but before Caption Cook and European arrival (Steadman, 2006). These extinctions likely resulted from a complex mix of human hunting, anthropogenic fire, deforestation and other habitat destruction, and the introduction of domesticated animals (pigs, dogs, and chickens) and stowaways (rats).