, 2000, Brunner et al., 2006 and Harmer and Morgan, 2009). Transformation applies to a more extended process of partial removals and species replacement (Pommerening, Dabrafenib in vivo 2006) but obviously the

demarcation between these approaches is indistinct (Kenk and Guehne, 2001 and Nyland, 2003). Often, the availability of markets for removals would determine whether to transform or convert. Forests may be degraded by myriad processes and rehabilitation may be achieved using several operations to augment or remove species (Fig. 1) or to restore natural disturbance processes, especially fire (Fig. 2). Often a combination of methods will be needed to meet objectives, including altering structure by thinning, planting desired woody species to restore composition, and seeding native understory plants to enhance biodiversity as well as to serve as fine fuel to carry prescribed fires (Brockway et al., 2005 and Walker and Silletti, 2006). For example, to meet the great interest in restoring Pinus palustris ecosystems in the southeastern USA, appropriate sites may require conversion from other pine species or rehabilitation of degraded stands. Proper diagnosis of initial conditions in terms of site, overstory and understory condition leads to an initial restoration prescription ( Table 2). Reconstruction refers to restoring native plant communities on land recently in other resource uses, such as crop production or pasture. Active

approaches could include ameliorating MK-8776 price the soil to increase organic matter content, decreasing bulk density, or reducing the weed seedbank; outplanting seedlings; or direct seeding. Passive approaches rely on recolonization of open land by natural dispersal means, but success can be limited by proximity to appropriate source plants and composition of initial seral species old (Benjamin et al., 2005). A combination of approaches may be useful as well—actively seeding or planting seedlings of keystone species at wide spacing and subsequently relying on passive dispersal to fill remaining niches with other desired species (e.g., Scowcroft and Yeh, 2013).

Reconstruction may appear to begin with a blank template but previous land use often leaves a legacy of degraded soil and competing vegetation (Arnalds et al., 1987, Friday et al., 1999 and Stanturf et al., 2004). Nevertheless, reconstruction affords the opportunity to restore ecosystems that have simple or complex structures, comprised of an overstory with one or many species and an understory that develops from recolonization or planting and seeding (Lamb, 2011). Decisions on which methods to use will be framed by overall objectives, initial site conditions, and landscape context. Reclamation applies to severely degraded land generally devoid of vegetation, often the result of belowground resource extraction, such as mining (Fig. 3) or work pads associated with oil and gas drilling.