SAPK JNK antibodies as above and the secondary antibody was a donkey anti mouse IgG antibody coupled with Ale a Fluor 488. Mounting medium with the nucleus specific fluorescent marker 4,6 diamidino 2 phenylindole, was used to maintain fluores cence. Finally, the preparations were e amined by transmission and fluorescence microscopy or a Zeiss LSM 510Meta laser scanning full report confocal microscope. all PG Hitec, Lisbon, Portugal. Evaluation of dysfunction and damage of cultured neurons There is controversy regarding the quantification of neur onal viability, because all available methods display accuracy problems, which depend on the e perimental conditions.

Therefore, we decided to use two different methods previously used by our group to assess the effect of a short e posure to glutamate on neuronal viability, dys function, and or damage, namely staining with propidium iodide and SYTO 13, and Inhibitors,Modulators,Libraries assessment of lactate dehydrogenase release. SYTO 13 and propidium iodide assay SYTO 13 is a cell permeating nucleic acid Inhibitors,Modulators,Libraries stain that increases its fluores cence upon binding to nucleic acids, thus, the pattern of SYTO 13 staining allows the visualization of viable cells and apoptotic cells in which the plasmatic membrane is still intact. PI also binds nucleic acids, resulting in strong red fluorescent enhancement. however, because this dye cannot penetrate cytoplasmic membranes, it only stains cells with a damaged plasma membrane, that is, necrotic cells and cells undergoing secondary apop tosis. To determine neuronal damage, cultured neurons were washed three times with Krebs buffer, then incubated for 3 minutes with a mi ture of SYTO 13 and PI pre pared in Krebs buffer.

After slides were coverslipped, neu rons were visualized and Inhibitors,Modulators,Libraries counted using fluorescence microscopy. At least si fields per coverslip were analyzed, counting a total of ap pro imately 300 cells. Lactate dehydrogenase Inhibitors,Modulators,Libraries assay LDH is a cytoplasmic o idoreductase that cat alyses the interconversion of pyruvate and lactate with con comitant interconversion of NADH and NAD. Upon overt cell damage leading to a compromise of plasma membrane integrity, LDH is released into the e tracellular space. Being a fairly stable enzyme, it has been widely used to evaluate the degree of damage induced by insults to cells, especially in the conte t of cell death occurring mainly through necro sis.

In this study, LDH activity was measured spectrophoto metrically by assessing the rate of conversion of NADH to NAD using optical density at 340 nm. Thus, to determine neuronal damage, the medium was aspirated and kept at 4 C until analysis. The plated neurons were lysed by three freeze thaw cycles with Dacomitinib 1 selleck bio ml HEPES buffer containing 0. 02% Triton 100. The lysates were also kept at 4 C for analysis. Before the assay, both intracellular and e tracellu lar fractions were separated by centrifugation for 10 min utes at 14,000 rpm in a microcentrifuge at 4 C. The pellets were discarded, and the supernatants were used to measure LDH