The article was written with funding from the CGIAR Research Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry. “
“Forests cover approximately 30% of the world’s total land mass (FAO, 2010) and are an integral part of life on earth, providing a range of services at local, national

and global levels. Projected changes in climate, both gradual and extreme events, pose a serious threat to forestry (IPCC, 2011). As such, international organizations are currently engaged BGB324 in actions to address the interconnected challenges of deforestation, forests degradation and desertification in a changing environment. Not only does climate change pose a threat to forests themselves, but also to the millions of people who depend on them directly for their livelihoods (Dawson et al., 2014, this special issue), and to the billions who are supported by forests through the provision of environmental services that are vital to humanity (UNEC, 2009 and FAO, 2010). Global climate change projections depend on future rates of greenhouse gas emissions, but expected temperature increases range from 1.1 °C to 2.9 °C by 2090–2099 (compared to 1980–1999) for a low (B1) emissions

scenario, 1.7 °C to 4.4 °C for a medium (A1B) CP-868596 nmr scenario and 2.0 °C to 5.4 °C for a high (A2) scenario (Solomon et al., 2007). Even a change at the lower end of this

range is significant for forests and trees. Considerable changes in precipitation are also projected, with locations that are currently dry receiving generally less precipitation and locations that are currently relatively wet receiving more (Solomon et al., 2007). Evidence for negative effects of climate change on forests globally is mounting (Allen et al., 2010). In North America, for example, whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis Engelm.) is dying due to a combination of drought-induced stress, mountain pine beetle attack (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) and blister rust (Cronartium ribicola A. Dietr.) that is attributed to climate change ( Campbell and Antos, 2000, Smith et al., 2008 and Zeglen, 2002). Other Unoprostone negative effects attributed to climate change include: the massive die-off (on 12,000 km2) of Pinus edulis (Engelm.) in the southwestern USA ( Breshears et al., 2005); the sudden decline of Populus tremuloides (Michx.) in the USA’s Rocky Mountains ( Rehfeldt et al., 2009); the decline in Cedrus atlantica ([Endl.] Manetti ex Carrière) in the Middle Atlas mountains of Morocco ( Mátyás, 2010); the decline of Fagus sylvatica L. in southwest Hungary ( Mátyás et al., 2010); and the replacement of F. sylvatica by more drought-tolerant Quercus ilex L. in Catalonia, northeast Spain ( Peñuelas et al., 2007).