Through Earth history, these episodic events abruptly elevated atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols at rates to which habitats and species could not adapt, leading to mass extinction of species (Keller, 2005, Glikson, 2005, Glikson, 2010 and Glikson, 2013). The effect selleck products of humans-generated combustion on nature is tracking towards a similar order of magnitude. Thus, human respiration dissipates 2–10 calories per minute, a camp fire covering one square metre releases approximately 180,000 calories per minute, and the output of a 1000 MW/h power plant expends some 2.4 billion calories per minute,
Volasertib mw namely some 500 million times the mean energy level of individual human respiration. The phenomenon of life, magnified in complex technological civilizations focused on cities, entails local and transient increases in potential energy, or anti-entropy. This, however, comes at the expense of an increase in energy-dissipation, namely a rise in entropy, in cleared, degraded and depleted environments from which urban centres derive their
resources. Since the industrial revolution oxidation of fossil carbon relics of ancient biospheres has increased the release of energy stored in plants and plant remains by many orders of magnitude. This is represented by the rise in carbon emissions from landscape and biomass burning Rebamipide by 2–4 billion tonnes carbon per year, and from fossil fuel combustion by 7.2 billion ton per year
(Bowman et al., 2009). By the Twenty-first century the combined anthropogenic carbon release from fossil fuel combustion and fires is rising above 9.2 billion tonnes per year, with far reaching consequences for the level of greenhouse gases and thereby of temperatures and climate state of the atmosphere-ocean-cryosphere-biosphere system. The dawn of the Neolithic owes its origin to the stabilization of the Holocene climate about ∼8 kyr allowing cultivation of crops, animal husbandry and related crafts—pottery and smelting of metals. Extensive burning and land clearing during the Holocene magnified entropy, where the extent of biomass burning, as indicated by residual charcoal deposits, has reached levels as high as from the combustion of fossil fuels during the first part of the 20th century (Bowman et al., 2009). Ruddiman (2003) defines the onset of an Anthropocene from a rise in CO2 from ∼6000 years-ago when levels rose from ∼260 ppm (to ∼280 ppm about 1750 AD) and of methane from ∼4000 years-ago when levels rose from 550 ppb (to ∼700 ppb about 1750 AD), consequent on land clearing, fires and cultivation. Kutzbach et al.