If a pathology is seen, regardless of whether it occurs in both g

If a pathology is seen, regardless of whether it occurs in both groups, further analysis should be performed to determine

the nature of the occurrence and to completely rule-out disease. Furthermore, whilst the incidence of a pathology may be equal in both groups, the degree or severity may PLX3397 vary. Therefore, it is always important to record and report the severity of a pathology. For example, an animal may be prone to a certain pathology (e.g. Sprague–Dawley rats are known to spontaneously develop certain neoplastic lesions) (Chandra et al., 1992 and Kaspareit and Rittinghausen, 1999), but it is possible that the GM component may increase the severity or risk of this development. In addition, the type of crop fed may cause a pathology. For example, soy is known to have adverse effects on bone and the digestive tract (Godlewski et al., 2006 and Piastowska-Ciesielska and Gralak,

this website 2010). Therefore, feeding soy would naturally cause changes to the gut, but the GM component may increase the severity of these changes. Hence, detailed histopathological and morphometric analyses are needed to completely rule out the GM crops’ involvement in the development of the lesion or pathological condition. In other words, it is not sufficient to say that the GM food is safe if incidences of a pathology or lesion are equal in both groups. Further testing should be carried out to completely rule out the GM component’s involvement in the development of the pathological incidence(s). Another common conclusion made was that no changes were

seen that could be considered treatment, test-article, or test-substance related, or toxicologically relevant. However, the six studies that Leukocyte receptor tyrosine kinase made this conclusion did not define treatment-related or toxicologically relevant. (Hammond et al., 2006a, Hammond et al., 2006b, Healy et al., 2008, Qi et al., 2012, Wang et al., 2002 and Zhu et al., 2004). Therefore, they did not provide clearly defined criteria by which to judge if a given tissue was normal or not, and if abnormal, whether the abnormality was toxicologically relevant and/or treatment-related. Some food regulators, such as Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ, 2007) describe GM food as novel food. In other words, they recognise that no definition yet exists for toxicologically relevant or test-substance related changes. However, by applying the test for substantial equivalence, food regulators argue that an existing compound or plant of known toxicity can be used to evaluate or predict the action of a novel compound or food such as a GM crop (FSANZ (Food Standards Australia New Zealand), 2007, König et al., 2004 and Kuiper and Kleter, 2003).

Twelve students (Mean age = 23 7 years, SD = 4 4, 7 female) from

Twelve students (Mean age = 23.7 years, SD = 4.4, 7 female) from the University of Aix-Marseille completed experiment 1 and were paid 10 €/h. They were naive with respect to the purpose of the experiment and reported to have normal or corrected-to-normal vision and normal color vision. This experiment

was approved by the ethical committee of the Aix-Marseille University, and by the “Comité de Protection des Personnes Sud Méditerrannée 1” (approval n° 1041). Participants gave their informed written consent according to the declaration of Helsinki. Subjects were tested individually in a dark room (∼0.08 cd/m2). They were seated in a comfortable chair 150 cm in front of a CRT color monitor with a refresh rate of 100 Hz. At this distance, 1 cm on the screen corresponded to approximately 0.38° of visual angle. Stimulus presentation and collection of data were controlled by Psychopy (Peirce, 2007). Special attention was Gamma-secretase inhibitor INCB018424 order paid to the manner in which Psychopy utilizes the vertical refresh rate/sync of the monitor to ensure RT data was not influenced by the vertical blank interval. Stimuli were red and blue circles (radius = 0.24°) presented on the horizontal midline of a 12.18° × 9.15° black field. On every trial, a target circle appeared in the center of the field and was flanked by two circles at an eccentricity of 0.8°

center to center. We manipulated the color saturation of target circles while keeping their luminance constant. To obtain identical levels of perceptual saturation between red and blue, we used the CIE Lightness Chroma Hue device-independent 3 colorimetric space ( IKBKE Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage, 1976), which is a variant of the CIE L*a*b* space specifically designed to accurately map color perception. Chroma quantifies the degree of perceptual saturation across colors. Lightness is a non-linear transformation of luminance. Although the two concepts are different, it is always true that colors with the same lightness will have the same luminance. Six suprathreshold chroma levels (15%, 25%, 35%, 45%, 60%, and 80%) were chosen to span

a large range of color intensities. Red (Hue = 30°) and blue (Hue = 280°) colors always had the same lightness (L = 51), corresponding to a luminance of approximately 19 cd/m2. The chroma level of the flankers was set to 80%, and was never modulated. Colors were calibrated by means of a Brontes colorimeter (Admesy B.V., The Netherlands). Responses were made by the subject pressing either a right or a left button with the corresponding thumb. Button closures were transmitted through the parallel port of the computer to reach high temporal precision. Buttons were arranged on the top of two plastic cylinders (3 cm in diameter, 7 cm in height) serving as handgrips, and the distance between the cylinders was 20 cm. Subjects performed 24 blocks of 96 trials in a single-session experiment lasting approximately 100 min.

, 2000, Brunner et al , 2006 and Harmer and Morgan, 2009) Transf

, 2000, Brunner et al., 2006 and Harmer and Morgan, 2009). Transformation applies to a more extended process of partial removals and species replacement (Pommerening, Dabrafenib in vivo 2006) but obviously the

demarcation between these approaches is indistinct (Kenk and Guehne, 2001 and Nyland, 2003). Often, the availability of markets for removals would determine whether to transform or convert. Forests may be degraded by myriad processes and rehabilitation may be achieved using several operations to augment or remove species (Fig. 1) or to restore natural disturbance processes, especially fire (Fig. 2). Often a combination of methods will be needed to meet objectives, including altering structure by thinning, planting desired woody species to restore composition, and seeding native understory plants to enhance biodiversity as well as to serve as fine fuel to carry prescribed fires (Brockway et al., 2005 and Walker and Silletti, 2006). For example, to meet the great interest in restoring Pinus palustris ecosystems in the southeastern USA, appropriate sites may require conversion from other pine species or rehabilitation of degraded stands. Proper diagnosis of initial conditions in terms of site, overstory and understory condition leads to an initial restoration prescription ( Table 2). Reconstruction refers to restoring native plant communities on land recently in other resource uses, such as crop production or pasture. Active

approaches could include ameliorating MK-8776 price the soil to increase organic matter content, decreasing bulk density, or reducing the weed seedbank; outplanting seedlings; or direct seeding. Passive approaches rely on recolonization of open land by natural dispersal means, but success can be limited by proximity to appropriate source plants and composition of initial seral species old (Benjamin et al., 2005). A combination of approaches may be useful as well—actively seeding or planting seedlings of keystone species at wide spacing and subsequently relying on passive dispersal to fill remaining niches with other desired species (e.g., Scowcroft and Yeh, 2013).

Reconstruction may appear to begin with a blank template but previous land use often leaves a legacy of degraded soil and competing vegetation (Arnalds et al., 1987, Friday et al., 1999 and Stanturf et al., 2004). Nevertheless, reconstruction affords the opportunity to restore ecosystems that have simple or complex structures, comprised of an overstory with one or many species and an understory that develops from recolonization or planting and seeding (Lamb, 2011). Decisions on which methods to use will be framed by overall objectives, initial site conditions, and landscape context. Reclamation applies to severely degraded land generally devoid of vegetation, often the result of belowground resource extraction, such as mining (Fig. 3) or work pads associated with oil and gas drilling.

There are not many studies consistently investigating the ability

There are not many studies consistently investigating the ability of different approaches to disinfect oval-shaped canals. In a recent study, Siqueira et al (14) compared the in vitro capability of a newly developed instrument, the self-adjusting file, and rotary NiTi instrumentation to eliminate Enterococcus faecalis populations from long oval root canals. They observed that rotary NiTi instrumentation used with Neratinib chemical structure syringe/needle irrigation failed to predictably disinfect root canals and was significantly less effective than the

self-adjusting file. The difficulty of effectively cleaning and disinfecting oval-shaped canals open perspectives to the use of alternative or supplementary approaches. Postinstrumentation supplementary approaches have been proposed to improve and/or expedite root canal disinfection. For instance, to take advantage of the benefits of both NaOCl and chlorhexidine (CHX) as irrigants, it has been recommended to use NaOCl

during preparation and to supplement disinfection by a final rinse with CHX 15 and 16. Activation of the irrigant solution has also been recommended, and among the methods available, passive ultrasonic irrigation (PUI) is probably the most used (17). PUI refers to either intracanal placement of an irrigant with a syringe followed by ultrasonic activation or continuous delivery of irrigant through an ultrasonic handpiece (18). PUI has been shown to be more effective than other irrigation systems in removing tissue remnants and dentinal debris from learn more the main root canal as well as from irregularities Sclareol 19, 20, 21 and 22. Based on these reports, it seems interesting to test the effects of PUI and the CHX final rinse on oval-shaped root canal disinfection. The present study was undertaken to investigate the ability of different approaches to supplement the intracanal antibacterial effects of rotary NiTi instrumentation against E.

faecalis populations in long oval root canals of extracted human teeth. This study used 54 extracted teeth (single-rooted and single-canaled mandibular incisors and maxillary second premolars) with long oval root canals obtained from an existing collection of extracted teeth at Estácio de Sá University. These teeth were extracted for reasons not related to this study, and approval for the study protocol was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Estácio de Sá University. Teeth were selected on the basis of radiographs taken in both buccolingual and mesiodistal directions. Selected teeth had root canals presenting a greater than 2.5:1 ratio between the buccolingual and mesiodistal dimensions at a level 5 mm from the root apex. Pairs of teeth were selected on the basis of similar radiographic root canal morphology, and each tooth from each pair was randomly assigned to each experimental group.

The implications of different assumptions regarding these sources

The implications of different assumptions regarding these sources of variance S3I 201 are discussed later.

The vaccine impact calculations suggest that the introduction of a dengue vaccine will not reduce the projected clinical case below 2006 levels in the short-medium term (through 2033). Effectively this means that the economic burden described here for dengue in 2006 will persist, and is not addressable by dengue vaccination unless there are major deviations from our current level of knowledge not factored into our simulations. However, this unmet medical need and economic burden is addressable with dengue drugs. Therefore, in the calculations for the size of the potential dengue drug market that follow, see more we have assumed a persisting annual economic burden of dengue equivalent to 2006. Presumably, in the absence of a dengue vaccine, the number of dengue cases would have continued to increase as a

function of population growth (more susceptible individuals), increased urbanization (increased concentration of people with vectors) and climate change (expanded range of vectors). Our calculations explicitly do not address the economic burden that might be associated with this putative expansion in dengue cases that is preventable through vaccination. Our proposal for tiered pricing is that during a negotiated period of market exclusivity, national governments would agree to pay

an amount for an intervention that is equivalent to 50% of the economic burden relieved by that intervention. If this proposal were to become widely adopted, the maximum value of the potential market for dengue drugs annually would be 2006 US $169, 338 and Liothyronine Sodium 506 million if on average the available drugs reduced 20%, 40% or 60% of the economic burden of dengue respectively (Table 3). These figures might be lower if the period of market exclusivity of one or more innovator drugs had expired. The price per course of treatment was calculated based using this model. For a drug that reduced 40% of economic costs, the weighted global average cost is $63 per treatment course (Table 3). Regional pricing would be $77, $115, $133 and $23 for Brazil, Thailand, Malaysia and Cambodia respectively (Table 5). Note that this is the total price for an effective treatment course of a dengue drug, NOT the expected price per pill. Dengue is classified as a neglected disease by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2012b). From the perspective of a pharmaceutical innovator, this implies that in aggregate the commercial market for drugs or vaccines for this disease might be small. For dengue drugs this is even more pertinent if dengue vaccines effectively induce herd immunity. As dengue drug discovery and development ratchets up over the next ten years it is essential to understand whether this reflexive assumption is true.

AOM/DSS induced colitis was scored as the disease activity index

AOM/DSS induced colitis was scored as the disease activity index (DAI) as described previously [22]. In brief, the DAI was the combined scores of weight learn more loss (0, none; 1, 0–5%; 2, 5–10%; 3, 10–20%; and 4, >20%), stool consistency change (0, none; 2, loose stool; and 4, diarrhea), and bleeding (0, none; 1, trace; 2, mild hemoccult; 3, obvious hemoccult; and 4, gross bleeding), and then divided by three. The animals were scored for the DAI at the same time of each day, blind to the treatment. The minimal score was 0 and the maximal score was 4. Paraffin-embedded gut tissue samples were serially sectioned, and some sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E). The stained sections were subsequently examined

for histopathological changes by a gastrointestinal pathologist. Proteins of the mouse colonic tissue that was collected on Day 14 were extracted with radio-immunoprecipitation assay lysis buffer (Thermo Scientific, Hanover Park, IL, USA) adding 10 μL/mL proteinase inhibitor cocktail and phosphatase inhibitor cocktail (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA). ELISA was performed with Multi-Analyte ELISArray Kit containing 12 mouse inflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)1α, IL1β, IL2, IL4, IL6, IL10, IL12, IL17A, interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α),

granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), and granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)] according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Total RNA was isolated from the mouse colonic tissues using the miRNeasy kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, CA, USA) based on the manufacturer’s instructions Sodium butyrate and was used as a template http://www.selleckchem.com/products/PLX-4032.html to synthesize cDNA for qRT-PCR. First strand cDNA was synthesized using Thermo Scientific Maxima First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit. qRT-PCR was performed

on a 7900HT real-time PCR system (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). qRT-PCR with SYBR Green dye (QIAGEN) was used to determine the gene expression. Primers for qRT-PCR are listed in Table 1. β-actin was used as an endogenous control. Each sample was run in triplicate. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated measures and Student t test. The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. The chemical structures of 11 major ginsenosides, in the protopanaxadiol or protopanaxatriol groups, are shown in Fig. 2A. The chromatograph of AG extract is shown in Fig. 2B. As shown in Fig. 2C, the contents of protopanaxatriol type ginsenosides Rg1, Re, Rh1, Rg2, and 20R-Rg2 in AG extract were 0.43%, 11.33%, 0.10%, 0.15%, and 0.13%, respectively, whereas the contents of protopanaxadiol type ginsenosides Rb1, Rc, Rb2, Rb3, Rd, and Rg3 were 38.89%, 2.24%, 0.50%, 0.62%, 2.68%, and 0.28%, respectively. The total ginsenoside content was 57.4%. Starting from Day 4 after DSS treatment, animals in the model group showed apparent diarrhea and rectal bleeding.

, 2003) in these sandy, acid mineral soils as they posses limited

, 2003) in these sandy, acid mineral soils as they posses limited capacity to fix or adsorb organic P. The accelerated P loss from this system associated with excessive use of fire and secondary impacts mirror P dynamics in mature forest ecosystems entering late primary succession (Parfitt et al., 2005). The impact of this P loss could be significant. The open forest canopy in the spruce-Cladina forest provides limited throughfall. Phosphorus requirements for cyanobacterial N fixation are high ( Chapin et al., 1991) and feathermosses receive their P inputs from canopy throughfall ( Turetsky, 2003). These combined limitations would act as to reduce the presence and productivity of cyanobacteria

www.selleckchem.com/products/ABT-263.html associated with feathermosses and ultimately lead to N limitation and decline in the presence and N2 fixation activity of feathermosses ( DeLuca and Zackrisson, 2007) thus limiting the capacity of the feathermosses to rebuild N capital on the spruce-Cladina forests. Extractable Mg was also notably reduced by years of burning. The mechanism for this loss is unclear as burning

would have concentrated alkaline metals in the ash layer (Neary et LY294002 nmr al., 2005) and since there was no observable effect of burning on extractable Ca or total K (see Table 3). Again, it is possible that erosion of the ash layer and net leaching of Mg after fire events would potentially reduce extractable Mg in these sandy soils. The large differences in resin adsorbed NO3− is likely due to a reduced litter inputs into the degraded forests or perhaps due to the historic frequent burning and the visible accumulation of charcoal fragments in the O horizon. Charcoal presence in the mineral soil of frequently burned forest stands was significantly lower on average than

in the spruce-Cladina forests (see above); however, charcoal would have been more recently deposited in the O horizon and mineral soil ( DeLuca and Aplet, 2008). Charcoal presence in mineral soil and the O horizon has been observed to increase net nitrification ( DeLuca et al., 2006 and DeLuca and Sala, 2006) and result in an increased presence of ammonia oxidizing bacteria ( Ball et al., 2010). Zackrisson et al. (1996) found that charcoal Palbociclib price expresses a capacity to adsorb organic compounds for approximately 100 years after the last fire event. This adsorption potential includes phenols and terpenes which are prevalent in forest ecosystems and have the potential to interfere with nitrification ( Uusitalo et al., 2008 and Ward et al., 1997). Therefore it is possible that the charcoal in the spruce-Cladina soils had been more recently deposited and still had the capacity to influence nitrification. Available organic C and N immobilization potential would have been greater in the reference forest given the notably deeper O horizon and greater C:N ratio which would result in more rapid immobilization of NO3−.

, 1996) Jani et al (1990) evaluated the effect of the different

, 1996). Jani et al. (1990) evaluated the effect of the different sizes (50–100–200–300–1000–3000 nm) of polystyrene particles on gastrointestinal buy Ibrutinib uptake. They found a size-dependent decrease of the uptake from 34% for 50 nm particles to 26% for 100 nm particles. The uptake rate of the larger particles was minimal. 6.6% of the dose was detected in liver, spleen, blood and bone marrow compared to 0.8% for 1000 nm particles. In addition to particle size, dose and duration

of the exposure are important for the interpretation of the data (Overview provided in Table 1). Independent from the material used, NMs up to 100 nm distribute into the organism after one single application (Jani et al., 1990). When multiple applications are performed also larger particles distribute outside of the gastrointestinal system (Jani et al., 1994). High dosing, species differences, choice of the tracer and methodology used for organ distribution complicate comparisons between

different studies, as well as conclusions on nanoparticle effects. For instance, local effects at the gastrointestinal mucosa, liver and kidney damage and impairment of the immune system have been reported. Based on environmental data for nano-TiO2, concentrations much higher than 0.4 mg/kg for acute toxicity appear unrealistic (Lomer et al., 2000). ON-01910 mouse As many metals and metal oxides may accumulate, the evaluation of higher doses is justified. Nevertheless, data from repeated applications of ≥1 g/kg are not physiologically relevant. In broiler chicken hatchlings, which were treated with doses below 250 ng/kg silver nanoparticles (Ahmadi and Kurdestany, 2010, Ahmadi, 2009 and Ahmadi et al., 2009), adverse effects were already detected at these low concentrations. The higher toxicity of the silver nanoparticles

may either be due to interspecies differences or to the low age of the chicken. For correct tracing of the organ distribution the choice of the label and the mode of detection appear important. In the study of Jani et al. (1990) the label was potentially not stable and the localization of the label may not correspond to that of the particles. If NMs are only detected by chemical analysis it is not clear if they are accumulated in a dissolved form or as intact particles. Few data have been published regarding the permeation through diseased barriers. Changes in mucus composition induced by Ag PDK4 nanoparticles (Jeong et al., 2010), polystyrene particles and diesel exhaust increased mucus permeability and permeation of small molecules by a factor of 5 (McGill and Smyth, 2010). The adherence of polystyrene nanoparticles to inflamed colonic mucosa was much higher than to normal mucosa (Lamprecht et al., 2001). Also in the elaborated co-culture in vitro model developed by Leonhard et al. (2010) smaller particles (50 nm) polystyrene particles adhered better to the inflamed monolayer and were taken up into the cells, whereas larger particles only adhered to the cell surface.

When DNA damage persists in the genome, through replicative proce

When DNA damage persists in the genome, through replicative processes and/or through transcription-associated mutagenesis, it becomes permanent in the form of mutations and/or chromosomal breakage and instability (Heydari et al., 2007). Studies by Richardson’s laboratory suggested CR as an “intervention” that could alter the activation of specific “stress response genes”, key enzymes in DNA repair pathways, which would result in upregulation

of “DNA repair” capacity (Heydari et al., 2007 and Kirkwood and Shanley, 2005). Thus, the CR diet could enhance DNA repair, decrease DNA damage and consequently, reduce mutation frequency, which would result in maintenance of genomic stability. It would be interesting in future studies to investigate DNA damage in other brain structures, such as cortex, amygdala and cerebellum. www.selleckchem.com/products/sch-900776.html In summary, by examining calorie restriction’s effects we were able to identify GW3965 nmr hippocampal and cortical modulation which gave rise to a number of metabolic changes that improved the basal status of important parameters for cellular self-defense, such as GSH upregulation and DNA damage downregulation. The maintenance of metabolic and physiological stability during

aging is a prime determinant of longevity and brain function. Thirty male 60-day-old Wistar rats, coming from the local breeding colony (ICBS-UFRGS), were fed ad libitum or on CR diets for 12 weeks and maintained in a ventilated room at 21 °C with free access to water on a 12 h light/dark cycle. Experiments were performed according to the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and approved by local authorities. Animals were weighted matched and divided into two different groups: Control (ad libitum) and calorie-restricted rats (CR). The CR group received a common/standard laboratory chow (Nuvilab-CR1, from Nuvital, Brazil) diet except for a lower caloric intake. The caloric restriction was progressive, initiated with 10% restriction during the first week and changed to 20% and 30% during

the second and third weeks, respectively, until the end of treatment. Food intake was daily monitored and animals were weighted weekly ( Ribeiro et al., 2009). EPM task was Galeterone performed by placing the animal just in the center of a maze with two closed arms and two open ones (44.5 cm × 11.5 cm for each arm). During a 2-min period, the number of entries into the closed arms and the time spent in the open ones were registered (Swarowsky et al., 2008). In rodents, one of the most important components of exploration (a prominent activity of the animal’s repertoire of spontaneous activity) is locomotion assessed in an open-field arena. The open field test is a locomotor behavior assessment paradigm that provides simultaneous measures of locomotion, exploration and anxiety.

Survival is presented as percentage and the differences were anal

Survival is presented as percentage and the differences were analyzed using the non-parametric

Kaplan-Meier analysis (SPSS® computer program version 22, IBM). Typical OP-induced symptoms were seen following exposure to paraoxon. Fasciculation, tremor, teeth clenching and salivation appeared within 5-10 minutes after paraoxon injection, followed by respiratory distress and tonic-clonic convulsions. All animals showed signs of significant respiratory distress within 15 minutes of exposure, manifested as tachypnea, cyanosis and gasping. If no ventilation Icotinib manufacturer support was provided, the clinical condition of the animals deteriorated rapidly and most of the animals died within one hour of exposure (Control group: 67%, 6 out of 9 died within 24 h). In the Idelalisib datasheet bag-valve Mask group, the animals survived the 25 minutes of ventilation, but shortly after ventilation was terminated, the mortality rate resembled that of the control

group (Mask group: 71%, 5/7). In contrast, no mortality was recorded following 25 minutes ventilation with the cuirass, and the pigs recovered better and faster (Cuirass group: 0%, 0/7). Survival analysis (Kaplan-Meier, Fig. 2) showed significant differences between groups (χ2(2) = 8.32, p < 0.016), and pairwise comparison showed no differences between Control and Mask but both groups differ from the Cuirass group (p < 0.009). A key observation relates to oropharyngeal secretions: Mouth excretions of the cuirass-ventilated animals were frothy white as in deep suctioning, as opposed to the clear saliva-like appearance of secretions in the other two groups. No other clinical differences between the bag-valve

group and the Cuirass group, and no changes in hemodynamic parameters were observed (see below). In surviving animals, no significant differences were found between the three groups in any of the clinical signs observed (data not shown). 24 h following paraoxon exposure, most surviving pigs still showed ataxia, tremors at exertion and low mobility. At that time, 3 of the Cuirass group, and 1 of the surviving Mask group showed minor to no toxicity signs. Pre-exposure mean values of Succinyl-CoA the physiological parameters were within normal limits for all three study groups (data not shown). Following exposure to paraoxon all three groups exhibited 30% reduction in hemoglobin saturation together with an increase in arterial pCO2 and a decrease in arterial pO2, compared to baseline. Reduction in both BE and blood pH were found in all three groups studied (an average decrease in BE of 15.3 ± 1.6 mEq/l in the Cuirass group, 16.3 ± 2.7 in the Mask group, and an average reduction of pH from 7.5 to 7.14 in the Cuirass and Mask groups, respectively). Sinus bradycardia (30-35% decrease) peaked at 20-30 minutes post exposure (113 ± 11 bpm in the Cuirass group) and was slightly lower in the Control and the Mask groups (95 ± 9 bpm).